by Philip F. May, Irwin M. Brodo, and Theodore L. Esslinger

Revised 27 October 2002

About this webpage          Suggestions for use           Acknowledgements

References alphabetically by genus    [skip explanation]

References alphabetically by genus [skip explanation]

Authors: Philip F. May, Irwin M. Brodo, and Theodore L. Esslinger
Web implementation: Philip F. May
Original date online: 15 March 2000
Entries updated: 18 October 2002  (includes RLL #187)
URLs updated: 27 October 2002
File size: 853 kilobytes
Send corrections, suggestions, or comments to Philip May: philip.may@verizon.net
Suggested citation:

Table of Contents

       Unless you have a fast internet connection, we strongly recommend saving this bibliography onto your own computer’s hard drive via the save function of your browser. The file is about eight hundred fifty kilobytes long. Using a dial-up modem, it may take from 30 seconds to four minutes to access via the Internet, but much less time from your hard drive. Once saved, the file may be read directly using your browser or printed out. A printed version will be approximately 190 pages long.

       We try to update the bibliography at least once or twice a year. If you've using a copy stored on your hard drive, you may wish to check for an updated version occasionally.

       Font size may be adjusted on your Browser. With Internet Explorer look on the "View" menu under Fonts. With Netscape Navigator look either under "View" or "Options-General preferences," depending upon the version you have.

        Most browsers will also allow the document to be searched by keyword. If your program allows it, searching using bolded genus names will take you directly to a genus. Without bold, a search will take you to the next mention of the genus anywhere in the document.

Table of Contents

       It has been 14 years since the second author, Irwin M. Brodo, first published "A Guide to the Literature for Identifying North American Lichens." Since then many changes have taken place in lichen systematics, and many new works have been published that are useful in North America. We decided it was time to update and thoroughly revise the Guide.

       This Guide to the Literature is restricted to works useful for identifying North American lichens. We include the continental United States and Canada but exclude Hawaii, Mexico, and Greenland. This is the same geographical area covered by Esslinger and Egan (1995) (the "Sixth Checklist") and its more recent online revisions (the "Cumulative Checklist").

       The first part of the Guide lists major works with a broad scope. These are often in book format, and many are still available for purchase. Some of these works should be in the personal library of every student of lichens. These are listed under various categories, as indicated in the table of contents.

       The second part cites specialized papers for all the genera accepted in the online Cumulative Checklist (for North America). These references are a subset of those you would find by searching the database Recent Literature on Lichens, plus some that are not in that database because they precede it or were omitted.

       Unless otherwise stated, each and every reference in the Guide has been reviewed recently for its relevance for someone trying to identify a North America lichen. We have listed the references under each category in their approximate order of usefulness. For a genus, we might list first the most recent specialized work containing a key to all the North American species; second, any fairly modern generic revision or monograph for North America or adjacent parts of the world; third, older monographs or works with broad keys or many species descriptions; and fourth (sometimes), works describing species added since the most recent key. Because they are cited in the first part of the bibliography, and to avoid endless repetition, important national and regional floras are generally not cited separately for each genus, even though one of them may contain a valuable identification key.

       Unfortunately, for many genera there is no publication that gives complete coverage of North American species, making it difficult to decide which reference to list first. Our judgements are possibly biased towards use in eastern North America. We recognize that another ordering of references may be more appropriate for users in other regions.

       A few of the references in the Guide are out-of-date but are included for their value in delimiting the taxa according to the older literature and for their value in nomenclature. In some cases, a key that has appeared in several publications (in slightly modified form) is cited in its various editions to aid the reader who may have access to one edition and not the other. Generally, however, we have listed only the most up-to-date version and have tried to avoid the needless listing of keys and articles clearly superceded by modern works covering the same subject area.

       We have briefly annotated most of the references. In many cases, the annotation includes a count both of total species and of North American species treated in the cited work. The North American count includes only species listed as accepted in a genus by the North American checklist (or a synonym of an accepted species). This count was made during June, 1999, based on the Cumulative Checklist, so it will gradually go out of date as species are added and deleted from the checklist. For references listed under a genus, we generally indicate if the work has contains a key, species descriptions, and/or useful species illustrations. If any of these is not mentioned in an annotation, it will be absent from the cited work.

       Contrary to the previous Guide, we now cite many unpublished and unprinted works. These would include keys and other information found on websites, computer keys where made available by the author, unpublished printed keys (with permission of the author), informal English translations of works published in foreign languages, and dissertations (when available to the public). In each case we provide instructions how to obtain the unpublished reference.

       Also contrary to the previous Guide, we have included references for all genera of lichenicolous fungi listed in the Cumulative Checklist. For ease in deciphering citations, we have abandoned abbreviations. Except for initials of personal names, the only abbreviation used in the Guide is "N. Am." for "North America."

       In a work of this size and nature, errors of omission and commission are bound to creep in. We invite the reader to submit suggestions for corrections, changes, and additions. Suggestions should go to Philip May: philip.may@verizon.net .

Table of Contents

       It is an unfortunate fact that the vast majority of the cited works are available only in specialized botanical or mycological libraries associated with universities, botanical gardens, or natural history museums. Some of these may offer visiting privileges, interlibrary loans, or remote copying services (instructions below). Alternately, the reader may be able to write directly to the author(s) for a reprint ( Addresses of lichenologists ). Active journals may sell back issues or make articles available online ( Journals ).

       For some references we have provided the name and e-mail address of a distributor or publisher. The distributor may charge a fee, usually for copying and mailing expenses, but some may charge for their time. Authors sometimes aim for a small profit on their labors, and, of course, publishers charge for their books. Libraries typically charge for remote copying services, sometimes surprisingly large amounts.

       Interlibrary loans and remote copying services are available only through other libraries. Individuals can not obtain these services directly.

      To obtain an interlibrary loan--including xerographic copies of journal articles--simply go to your nearest library. Any library with a reference desk will do, even a local public library. Give the reference librarian the full citation. The librarian can search specialized databases for libraries owning the reference you want and find out which ones will lend or copy it. The fees that libraries charge for lending or copying vary. Your librarian can determine the least expensive option.

Table of Contents

By far the best way to start identifying lichens is by attending one or more workshop, course, or field trip led by an experienced lichenologist. It is hard to pick up identification skills on one's own and easy to get onto the wrong track, so beginners should seek help in getting started.

Academic and non-academic courses are offered at various times by various North American institutions and individual lichenologists. Lichen groups also periodically organize field trips and workshops. In addition, experienced lichenologists are often willing to check specimens and share their knowledge on a one-to-one basis with serious beginners.

     Courses, workshops, and field trips        Addresses of lichen groups        Addresses of lichenologists

Brodo, I.M., Sharnoff, S.D., and Sharnoff, S. 2001. Lichens of North America. Yale University Press, New Haven & London. 795 pp. [14 introductory chapters, copiously illustrated with drawings and spectacular color photographs}

Brodo, I.M. 1988. Lichens of the Ottawa region, second edition. Ottawa Field-Naturalists' Club Special Publication 3: 1-115, Ottawa. [introduction and glossary; available from the author at ibrodo@mus-nature.ca]

Goward, T., McCune, B. and Meidinger, D. 1994. The lichens of British Columbia, Illustrated keys. Part 1 - Foliose and squamulose species. B.C. Ministry of Forests, Special Report Series no. 8, i-iii, 1-181. Free downloadable version available: http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/docs/Srs/Srs08.htm bound version available: http://www.publications.gov.bc.ca [introductory chapter]

Hale, M.E., Jr. and Cole, M. 1988. Lichens of California. University of California Press, Berkeley, Los Angeles, London. 254 pp. [introductory chapter]

Hale, M.E., Jr. 1979. How to know the lichens, 2nd ed. Wm. C. Brown Co., Dubuque, Iowa, 246 pp. [introductory chapter]

McCune, B. and Geiser, L. 1997. Macrolichens of the Pacific Northwest. Oregon State University Press, Corvallis, 386 pp. [introductory chapter]

Anonymous. (no date) LichenLand {Online}. Available: http://mgd.nacse.org/hyperSQL/lichenland/index.html {accessed 1999 May 20} [an introduction to lichen vocabulary]

May, P.F. 2000. How to identify a macrolichen. {Online} Available: http://www.huh.harvard.edu/collections/lichens/howto.html [tips for identifying a leafy, shrubby, or pendent lichen]

See also:     Textbooks--general        Dictionaries and Glossaries        Technique

Table of Contents

Keys are used to identify unknown lichens. The easiest keys use a minimum of jargon, provide an illustrated glossary, and offer choices that are relatively simple to make. It is generally best to chose a key covering a region close to where lichens were collected. Beginners should seek help when first starting to key out lichens. This will prevent much frustration.

Here are a selection of keys that are easier to use than most:

Pittam, S.P., Hanus, J., Platt, J., Camacho, A., and Peterson, E.B. (no date) LichenLand {Online}. Available: http://mgd.nacse.org/hyperSQL/lichenland/index.html {accessed 1999 September 2} [This site is specifically designed for beginners. It contains two interactive keys. The first is a simplified key that teaches lichen vocabulary as you key. The second, more complex key can be somewhat difficult to use as it offers so many choices. The keys cover relatively few lichens, so they are best used as an introduction to the field]

Goward, T., McCune, B. and Meidinger, D. 1994. The lichens of British Columbia, Illustrated keys. Part 1 - Foliose and squamulose species. British Columbia, Ministry of Forests, Special Report Series no. 8, i-iii, 1-181. Free downloadable version available: http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/docs/Srs/Srs08.htm bound version available: http://www.publications.gov.bc.ca [keys illustrated by small drawings, useful throughout northern North America; the drawings are very helpful for interpreting the keys; the first chapter give an introduction to lichen identification]

Goward, T. 1999. The lichens of British Columbia, Illustrated keys. Part 2 - Fruticose species. B.C. Ministry of Forests Research Program (Special Report Series no. 9). 319 pp. Free downloadable version available: http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/docs/Srs/Srs08.htm bound version available: http://www.crownpub.bc.ca [keys illustrated by drawings; covers both fruticose macro- and microlichens; notes include chemistry, diagnostic features, habitat, variability, and range; useful throughout northern North America; the drawings are very helpful in interpreting the keys; highly recommended]

Hinds, P.L. and Hinds, J.W. 1998. Simplified field key to Maine macrolichens, published by the authors, 47 pp. [useable throughout New England and adjacent Canada; the key requires some hands-on knowledge of terminology; available from the authors at 254 Forest Avenue, Orono, ME 04473 jwhplh@earthlink.net]

Brodo, I.M. 1988. Lichens of the Ottawa region, second edition. Ottawa Field-Naturalists' Club Special Publication 3: 1-115, Ottawa. [northeastern U.S. and eastern Canada; keys written for, and tested on, non-professionals; covers all growth forms, but especially recommended for people starting to work on crusts; drawings of spores; available from the author at ibrodo@mus-nature.ca ]

McCune, B. and Geiser, L. 1997. Macrolichens of the Pacific Northwest. Oregon State University Press, Corvallis, 386 pp. [keys, treats and describes most genera and species of the region, many excellent color photographs of species]

Harris, R.C . 1977. Lichens of the Straits Counties, Michigan. (unpublished), 150 pp. [useful in temperate eastern North America; covers all growth forms, especially good for beginners trying to key out crusts because it uses traditional, spore based genera; drawings of spores; many of the names are out of date; available from Elisabeth Lay at Lay239@aol.com or may be copied from anyone who own a copy]

Wetmore, C.M. 1998 (most recent revision). Keys to the lichens of Minnesota. University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota. 83 pp. Available from the author at Clifford.M.Wetmore-1@tc.umn.edu [keys to about 550 species; the keys are organized using traditional, spore-based generic concepts, with a more modern name provided at the species level; the keys are thus relatively easy to use; the author does not accept all the most recent generic names]

Hale, M.E., Jr. 1979. How to know the lichens, 2nd ed. Wm. C. Brown Co., Dubuque, Iowa, 246 pp. [Covers most of the leafy, shrubby, and pendent lichens found on N. Am. list; the keys are not technical, but take some practice to use reliably; names of many taxa are out of date, but the book is still very useful. In print.]

Table of Contents

Brodo, I.M., Sharnoff, S.D., and Sharnoff, S. 2001. Lichens of North America. Yale University Press, New Haven & London. 795 pp. [keys, descriptions, range maps, and spectacular color photographs for more than 800 conspicuous foliose, fruticose and crustose lichen species; another 700 species are mentioned in valuable comparative notes; concise descriptions of most N. Am. genera, with useful comparisons to similar genera; introductory information about many aspects of lichen biology and systematics; this remarkable book is very useful for getting the feel of a genus; a user may also successfully key out common species; however, due to space constraints fewer than one-third of N. Am. species are keyed and fewer than half are mentioned.]

Wirth, V. 1995. Die Flechten Baden-Württembergs, Teil 1 and 2. Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart. 1006 pp. [moderate overlap with N. Am., but modern and with magnificent color photographs; keys, descriptions of genera and species; this edition is an expanded version of the work listed next; English translation available as a computer file from Doyle Anderegg. doyle@uidaho.edu]

Thomson, J.W. 1984. America Arctic Lichens 1. The Macrolichens. Columbia University Press, New York, 504 pp. [keys; descriptions of species and genera; beautifully detailed drawings of most species; useful in boreal and alpine regions]

Hansen, E.S. and Andersen, J. 1995. Greenland Lichens. Rhodos, Copenhagen. 124 pp. [small but good color photographs of 300 lichens; descriptions but no keys; treats both macrolichens and microlichens; good overlap with northern and alpine N. Am.]

McCune, B. and Geiser, L. 1997. Macrolichens of the Pacific Northwest. Oregon State University Press, Corvallis, 386 pp. [keys, descriptions of genera and species, 200 excellent color photographs]

Migula, W. 1925-1931 ("1929-1931"). Kryptogamen-Flora von Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz. Band IV: Flechten. Hugo Bermühler Verlag, Berlin-Lichterfelde. Teil 1: 527 pp. plus plates, Teil 2: 868 pp. plus plates. [143 beautiful plates, only a few of which are photographs; plates subdivided into several illustrations of species anatomy and habitus; most plates partly or entirely in color; the treatments of some genera are still useful, too]

Jahns, H.J. 1980. Farne-Moose-Flechten Mittel-, Nord- und Westeuropas. BLV Verlagsgesellschaft, München, Wein, Zurich. 256 pp. [300 good-quality color photographs of ferns, mosses, and lichens; the colors are mostly true; keys and descriptions]

John, V. 1990. Atlas der Flechten in Rheinland-Pfalz. Vol. 1 (text) and Vol. 2 (maps). Beiträge zur Landespflege in Rheinland-Pfalz, 13, Landesamt für Umweltschutz und Gewerbeaufsicht Rheinland-Pfalz, Oppenheim, Germany. 275 and 272 pp. [200 color photographs; not reviewed]

Sharnoff, S. and Sharnoff, S. (undated). North American Lichens: {Online}. Available: http://www.lichen.com/portraits.html {accessed 2001 September 13} [ca. 85 color photographs, also introductory topics]

Table of Contents

[In addition to the North American references listed below, several European books are of tremendous value in North America, especially for identifying crustose species. These are listed in the next section: best foreign references ].

Ryan, Bruce. (1994-1999) Working keys for the identification of North American lichens. {diskettes} Unpublished. Available: from the author at brucryan@mail.dancris.com [An intermittently updated set of working keys in WordPerfect format of various vintages, the oldest of which can only be roughly converted into MS Word format. Fairly technical--especially at the generic level--but almost complete coverage of N. Am. species, including fungi parasitic on lichens and quite a few lichen species that are presently undescribed, unidentified, or otherwise not yet on the North American checklist. Keys to genera, keys to natural and artificial groups, keys to species, keys to sterile species, detailed descriptions of genera and species; distribution by region or continent; huge glossary, sections on technique. Mostly a compilation from the literature, mixed and matched as needed; full of informal comments, alternate keys, numbering errors in the keys, and new species listed but not yet keyed. Since hyperlinks are lacking, navigation within the multiple subkeys and sections of large genera can be difficult. Definitely a work in progress, but extremely useful, especially once the genus is known. Despite its problems and inconsistencies, this is one of the two most useful references for experienced students identifying North American lichens.]

Brodo, I.M., Sharnoff, S.D., and Sharnoff, S. 2001. Lichens of North America. Yale University Press, New Haven & London. 795 pp. [keys, descriptions, range maps, and spectacular color photographs for more than 800 conspicuous foliose, fruticose and crustose lichen species; another 700 species are mentioned in valuable comparative notes; concise descriptions of most N. Am. genera, with useful comparisons to similar genera; introductory information about many aspects of lichen biology and systematics; this remarkable book is very useful for getting the feel of a genus; a user may also successfully key out common species; however, due to space constraints fewer than one-third of N. Am. species are keyed and fewer than half are mentioned.]

Hale, M.E., Jr. 1979. How to know the lichens, 2nd ed. Wm. C. Brown Co., Dubuque, Iowa, 246 pp. [Semi-complete coverage of N. Am. macrolichens as known in the late 1970s. The keys go directly to species level, so you don't need to know the genus first. The most common species are keyed, with other species mentioned in the fine print. The keys are not technical, but take some practice to use reliably. Partial species descriptions, including chemistry. Names of taxa are out of date, but the book is still very useful. In print..]

[The next eighteen references are in alphabetical order:]

Brodo, I.M. 1968. The lichens of Long Island, New York: a vegetational and floristic analysis. New York State Museum and Science Service Bulletin 410: 1-330. [keys to 260 species including crusts, useful notes; valuable on the northern Coastal Plain and in adjacent regions; the arrangement of genera in the book is a little confusing; available from http://www.nysm.nysed.gov/publications.html ]

Brodo, I.M. 1988. Lichens of the Ottawa region, second edition. Ottawa Field-Naturalists' Club Spec. Publication 3: 1-115, Ottawa. [northeastern U.S. and eastern Canada; especially good for beginners trying to key out crusts; copies still available from the author. ibrodo@mus-nature.ca ]

Dey, J.P. 1978. Fruticose and foliose lichens of the high-mountain areas of the southern Appalachians. Bryologist 81: 1-93. [Southern macrolichens; concentrates on the high-elevation spruce-fir forest, but some of the keys have been expanded to cover lower elevations]

Gowan, S.P. and Brodo, I.M. 1988. The lichens of Fundy National Park, New Brunswick, Canada. Bryologist 91: i + 255-325. [New England and eastern Canada; detailed keys to both macro- and microlichens; available from the American Bryological and Lichenological Society at http://www.unomaha.edu/~abls/]

Goward, T., McCune, B. and Meidinger, D. 1994. The lichens of British Columbia, Illustrated keys. Part 1 - Foliose and squamulose species. B.C. Ministry of Forests, Special Report Series no. 8, i-iii, 1-181 Free downloadable version available: http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/docs/Srs/Srs08.htm bound version available: http://www.publications.gov.bc.ca

Goward, T. 1999. The lichens of British Columbia, Illustrated keys. Part 2 - Fruticose species. B.C. Ministry of Forests Research Program (Special Report Series no. 9). 319 pp. Free downloadable version available: http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/docs/Srs/Srs08.htm bound version available: http://www.crownpub.bc.ca

Harris, R.C . 1977. Lichens of the Straits Counties, Michigan. (unpublished), 150 pp. [useful in temperate eastern North America; covers all growth forms, especially good for beginners trying to key out crusts because it uses traditional, spore-based genera; drawings of spores; many of the names are out of date; available from Elisabeth Lay at Lay239@aol.com or may be copied from anyone who own a copy]

Harris, R.C. 1995. More Florida Lichens. Including the 10 Cent Tour of the Pyrenolichens. Published by the author, New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, New York. 192 pp. [southern N. Am. and eastern coastal plain; one drawback--you must know the family, or often the genus, to start with; available from Elisabeth Lay at Lay239@aol.com or may be copied from anyone who own a copy.]

Hinds, P.L. and Hinds, J.W. 1998. Simplified field key to Maine macrolichens, published by the authors, 47 pp. [useful throughout New England and adjacent Canada; the key requires some hands-on knowledge of terminology; available from the authors at 254 Forest Avenue, Orono, ME 04473 jwhplh@earthlink.net]

Ladd, D. M. 1997. Preliminary Draft: Lichens of the lower Ozark region of Missouri and Arkansas. Unpublished. [keys, brief descriptions of genera, and notes; available from The Nature Conservancy at cost; contact Douglas Ladd: dladd@TNC.org ]

McCune, B. and Geiser, L. 1997. Macrolichens of the Pacific Northwest. Oregon State University Press, Corvallis, 386 pp. [keys to 458 species, descriptions of genera and ca. 200 species, excellent color photographs of ca. 200 species]

McCune, B. and Goward, T. 1995. Macrolichens of the Northern Rocky Mountains. Mad River Press, Eureka, California. 208 pp. [detailed keys that include many drawings, ca. 500 species; descriptions of genera; heavy use of abbreviations]

Nash, T.H., III, Ryan, B.D., Gries, C., and Bungartz, F. (eds.). 2002. Lichen Flora of the Greater Sonoran Desert Region, Vol. 1. Lichens Unlimited, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona. 532 pp. [keys to all genera in the region; keys to the species of 132 genera, incuding squamulose lichens, the Lichinales, most macrolichens, and most pyrenolichens; in N. Am. covers Arizona and southern California, but undoubtedly useful in adjacent regions; descriptions; notes on substrates, habitat, and distribution; many range maps; illustrated glossary; key to photobionts; available from the American Bryological and Lichenological Society at http://www.unomaha.edu/~abls/PublicationsforSale.htm]

Noble, W. 1982. The lichens of the coastal Douglas-fir dry subzone of British Columbia. Ph.D. thesis, University of British Columbia, Vancouver. Part II reprinted and updated in 1997, 238 pp. [practically the only key covering crustose lichens for the area west of the Dakotas; beautifully reprinted and much more compact then the original, but the update unfortunately lacks a key to genera; keys to species for each genus; non-technical descriptions of genera and species, spore drawings for a few genera, notes; the keys and descriptions predate the generic re-arrangements of recent years, and they de-emphasize mycological characters such as ascus type and conidial type; available from Bruce McCune at Bruce.McCune@science.oregonstate.edu]

St. Clair, L.L. 1999. A color guidebook to the common Rocky Mountain Lichens. Bean Life Science Museum of Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, 242 pp. [keys to nearly 200 common species--including some crustose lichens--most of which are described and illustrated with color photographs; covers all of the Rockies, the Great Basin, the Colorado Plateau, and the basin and range province of New Mexico and Arizona.]

Thomson, J.W. 1984. America Arctic Lichens 1. The Macrolichens. Columbia University Press, New York, 504 pp. [keys; descriptions of species and genera; beautiful detailed drawings of most species; also useful alpine areas]

Thomson, J.W. 1997. American Arctic Lichens 2. The Microlichens. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, 675 pp. [keys, descriptions of species and genera, some species illustrated; also useful in alpine areas]

Wetmore, C.M. 1967. Lichens of the Black Hills of South Dakota and Wyoming. Publications of the Museum, Michigan State University, Biological Series 3: 209-464. [keys, covers both macro- and microlichens, traditional generic concepts, notes on species]

Wetmore, C.M. 1998 (most recent revision). Keys to the lichens of Minnesota. University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota. 83 pp. Available from the author at Clifford.M.Wetmore-1@tc.umn.edu [keys to about 550 species; the keys are organized using traditional, spore-based generic concepts, with a more modern name provided at the species level; the keys are thus relatively easy to use; ; Melanelia and Trapeliopsis not yet treated; the author does not accept all recent generic names]

Table of Contents

Purvis, O.W., Coppins, B.J., Hawksworth, D.L, James, P.W., and Moore, D.M. 1992. The lichen flora of Great Britain and Ireland. Natural History Museum, London, 710 pp. [Invaluable, especially for its detailed descriptions of genera and species. Very useful for crustose genera, due to the extensive species overlap with temperate North America. Less useful for macrolichens. Keys, species descriptions and comparisons, chemistry, distributions by continents, literature references by genus, glossary. Generic concepts slightly conservative. . The keys to genus are probably too technical for beginners. Essential in any N. Am. lichen library. Available from the British Lichen Society at http://www.theBLS.org.uk/public.htm]

Clauzade, G. and Roux, C. 1985. Likenoj de Okcidenta Europo. Ilustrita Determinlibro. Bulletin de la Société Botanique du Centre-Ouest, Nouvelle Série, Numéro Spécial 7. Royan, France. 893 pp. [Illustrated generic and species keys for the lichens of western Europe (excluding the Azores); good species overlap with temperate and boreal N. Am.; lacks separate species descriptions, but compensates with extra information in the keys; the species of similar genera are often treated together in one key, making identification easier; keys are relatively non-technical; the book is unfortunately written in Esperanto, but some keys have been translated into French (see list below).]

Poelt, J. 1969. Bestimmungsschlüssel europäischer Flechten. Cramer, Lehre. 757 pp. [Detailed keys to the lichens of all Europe from the Urals to the Azores (excluding the Caucasus). This work--and the revisions by Poelt and Vezda (1977 and 1981)--have been supplanted by Clauzade and Roux (1985); nonetheless, they are still very useful and covers more area; they do not, however, treat all genera. English translation available from Dr. Doyle Anderegg Doyle@uidaho.edu in a version with certain genera replaced by revised text from Poelt and Vezda (1977).]

Wirth, V. 1995. Die Flechten Baden-Württembergs, Teil 1 and 2. Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart. 1006 pp. [covers the SW corner of Germany; only moderate overlap with N. Am., but modern, with excellent keys and magnificent color photographs; good descriptions of genera; habitat preferences of species, but no species descriptions; English translation available as a computer file from Dr. Doyle Anderegg. Doyle@uidaho.edu ]

Dobson, F.S. 2000. Lichens. An Illustrated Guide to the British and Irish Species. Richmond Publishing Co. Ltd., Slough, England. 431 pp. [non-technical keys to approximately 700 species, good overlap with northern and eastern N. Am.; descriptions of genera and species; for each genus drawings of spores, of stained asci, and of apothecial anatomy; small color photographs of each species, plus drawings of thallus morpholgy as needed; contains quite a few errors at the species level; most useful at the generic level, especially for its illustrations]

Magnusson, A.H. 1952. Lichens from Torne Lappmark. Arkiv för Botanik, Series II, 2: 45-249. [key, old, but helpful for crusts, especially in the large traditional genera]

Wirth, V. 1995. Flechtenflora. Bestimmung und ökologische Kennzeichnung der Flechten Südwestdeutschlands und angrenzender Gebiete. Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart. 661 pp. [detailed keys to genera and species of southwest Germany and environs; the descriptions mainly cover ecology and distribution; compact, few illustrations; supplants the previous edition issued in 1980]

Dahl, E. and Krog, H. 1973. Macrolichens of Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden. Scandinavian University Books, Universitetsforlaget, Oslo. 185 pp. [straightforward keys, good overlap with N. Am., no descriptions, many helpful drawings]

Ozenda, P. and Clauzade, G. 1970. Les lichens. Étude biologique et flore illustrée. Masson et Cie, Paris. 801 pp. [covers France and adjacent regions; traditional genera used; emphasis on obsolete orders and families makes it hard to identify to genus; within genera, good keys to species; photographs and great drawings; index gives taxon number, instead of page number; now superseded by Clauzade and Roux (1985)]

Moberg, R. and Holmåsen, I. 1992. Flechten von Nord- und Mitteleuropa. Ein Bestimmungsbuch. Gustav Fischer Verlag, Stuttgart, Jena, New York. 237 pp. [mainly valuable for its 300 color photographs; partial coverage of European species; key to genera, keys to species of macrolichen genera, but not microlichens genera; brief descriptions of genera and species, drawings of spores for microlichen genera]

(Various authors). 1930-1960. Dr. L. Rabenhorst's Kryptogamen-Flora von Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz. Die Flechten. Band 8 and Band 9, Abt. 1-6. Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft m. b. H., Leipzig. (each part numbered separately) [this monumental work was a standard reference for many years; it contains very detailed treatments for most taxonomic groups found in German-speaking Europe, as known in the 1930s; however subsequent taxonomic and nomenclatural changes, the description of many new species, and de-emphasis in the use of forms and variations makes this work less useful now; in many cases, it remains a good source for anatomical drawings for common European species, often under old names]

Table of Contents

McCune, B. 1997. Key to the Genera of the Pacific Northwest. Distributed by the author. 70 pp. [draft key, fairly useful throughout N. Am.; available at cost from Bruce McCune, Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, 97331-2902 Bruce.McCune@science.oregonstate.edu ]

Rambold, G. and Triebel, D. 1995-. A key to the genera of lichenized and lichenicolous Ascomycetes {Online}. In: LIAS: A Global Information System for Lichenized and Non-Lichenized Ascomycetes. Botanische Staatssammlung München. Available: http://www.mycology.net//lias/index.cfm {accessed 2001 January 23}. [world-wide, multiple entry key: start with any characters. Still in the draft stage and thus with some problems]

Tucker, S. and Thiers, H. 1998. Key to crustose lichen genera of California. Bulletin of the California Lichen Society 5(1): 1-11. [relatively non-technical and easy to use; does not use ascal wall characters; covers about 150 genera, but 50 rarely collected genera are omitted]

Malcolm, W.M., and Galloway, D.J. 1997. New Zealand Lichens. Checklist, Key, and Glossary. Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa, Wellington, 192 pp. [illustrated, technical key; contains many genera not in N. Am., as well as those that are; section on ascus staining technique, which is needed to use the key; contains a wonderful illustrated glossary]

Rogers, R.W. 1980. The Genera of Australian Lichens (Lichenized Fungi). University of Queensland Press, St. Lucia, London, New York. 124 pp. [non-technical key, older concepts; incomplete overlap with N. Am. genera]

Sipman, H. 1999. Identification key and literature guide to the genera of lichenized fungi (Lichens) in the Neotropics, provisional version {Online}. Botanic Garden and Botanical Museum Berlin-Dahlem, Free University of Berlin. Available: http://www.bgbm.fu-berlin.de/sipman/keys/neokeyA.htm {accessed 2001 January 23}. [key to the genera, with hyperlinks to distribution data, references, and--when available--photographs and keys to species; glossary; useful in the subtropical part of the United States and perhaps elsewhere]

Sipman, H. 1996. Key to the lichen genera of the Guianas {Online}. 453 couplets. Available: http://www.mnh.si.edu/biodiversity/bdg/lichkey3.html {accessed 2001 January 23}. [useful in the subtropical part of the United States and perhaps elsewhere]

Keys for determining the genera of the following groups can be found interspersed alphabetically in the generic part of this bibliography:   Arthoniales    bacidioid lichens   Calicioid lichens and fungi ("stubble" and "pin" lichens)      Gomphillaceae      lecideoid lichens      Lichinaceae and allies      Parmeliaceae      Physciaceae    fruticose Roccellaceae      Solarinellaceae      Teloschistaceae

Table of Contents

Purvis, O.W., Coppins, B.J., Hawksworth, D.L, James, P.W., and Moore, D.M. 1992. The lichen flora of Great Britain and Ireland. Natural History Museum, London, 710 pp. [the best descriptions of genera available: detailed and in a uniform format; comparisons with similar genera; uses conservative and somewhat dated generic concepts; available from the British Lichen Society at http://www.theBLS.org.uk/public.htm]

Ryan, Bruce. (1994-1999) Working keys for the identification of North American lichens {diskettes}. Available: from the author at brucryan@mail.dancris.com [bases descriptions mainly on Purvis et al. (1992), but recognizes more segregate genera; for details and problems see annotation under "Twenty most useful"]

Nash, T.H., III, Ryan, B.D., Gries, C., and Bungartz, F. (eds.) 2002. Lichen Flora of the Greater Sonoran Desert Region, Vol. 1. Lichens Unlimited, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona. 532 pp. [uses a uniform format similar to Purvis et al. (1992), but recognizes most modern seggregate genera; useful comparative notes; available from the American Bryological and Lichenological Society at http://www.unomaha.edu/~abls/PublicationsforSale.htm]]

Thomson, J.W. 1984. America Arctic Lichens 1. The Macrolichens. Columbia University Press, New York, 504 pp. [conservative generic concepts]

Thomson, J.W. 1997. American Arctic Lichens 2. The Microlichens. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, 675 pp. [conservative generic concepts]

Wirth, V. 1995. Die Flechten Baden-Württembergs, Teil 1 and 2. Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart. 1006 pp. [excellent descriptions of genera; English translation available as a computer file from Doyle Anderegg. doyle@uidaho.edu]

Brodo, I.M., Sharnoff, S.D., and Sharnoff, S. 2001. Lichens of North America. Yale University Press, New Haven & London. 795 pp. [short descriptions of most N. Am. genera; especially useful are the comparative notes and the color photographs which convey the "feel" of each genus]

Table of Contents

Peterson, E. (ed.). 2002-. Lichen key archive {Online}. Available: http://www.toyen.uio.no/botanisk/lav/LichenKey/index.htm {2002 October 18}. [a worldwide semipermanent repository for keys; rates each key on how complete and how technical it is; the site will probably be updated more frequently than this bibliography and covers a wider geographical range; many keys for tropical America]

Sipman, H. 1999. Lichen determination keys available on Internet {Online}. Botanischer Garten und Botanisches Museum Berlin-Dahlem, Freie Universität Berlin. Available: http://www.bgbm.fu-berlin.de/sipman/keys/default.htm {accessed 2002 October 18}. [a website with hyperlinks to other websites with keys; it will probably be updated more frequently than this bibliography and covers a wider geographical range; many keys for tropical America]

Goward, T., McCune, B. and Meidinger, D. 1994. The lichens of British Columbia, Illustrated keys. Part 1 - Foliose and squamulose species. B.C. Ministry of Forests, Special Report Series no. 8, i-iii, 1-181. Free downloadable .pdf version available: http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/docs/Srs/Srs08.htm bound version available: http://www.publications.gov.bc.ca {both accessed 2002 October 18} [keys to genera and species, illustrated by small drawings; brief characterizations of genera; notes and chemistry for species; useful throughout northern North America; files require the use of Adobe Acrobat Reader, a free program available over the Internet]]

Goward, T. 1999. The lichens of British Columbia, Illustrated keys. Part 2 - Fruticose species. B.C. Ministry of Forests Research Program (Special Report Series no. 9). 319 pp. Free downloadable version available: http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/docs/Srs/Srs09.htm ; bound version available: http://www.crownpub.bc.ca {both accessed 2002 October 18} [keys illustrated by drawings; covers both fruticose macro- and microlichens, including, for example, calicioid species, Gyalidiopsis, Baeomyces, and Pseudephebe; notes include chemistry, diagnostic features, habitat, variability, and range; useful throughout northern North America]

Pittam, S.P., Hanus, J., Platt, J., Camacho, A., and Peterson, E.B. (no date) LichenLand {Online}. Available: http://mgd.nacse.org/hyperSQL/lichenland/index.html {accessed 2002 October 18}. [This site is for beginners. It contains two interactive keys. The first is a simplified key that teaches lichen vocabulary as you key. The second, more complex key can be difficult to use as it offers so many choices. A limited selection of lichens are covered in the keys.]

Wetmore, C. 1999. Caloplaca data {Online}. University of Minnesota. Available: http://www.tc.umn.edu/~wetmore/Calop.html {accessed 2002 October 18}. [separate keys to 4 major subgroups of Caloplaca (sorediate species, species with lobed margins of the thallus, species with black or brown apothecia, species with orange or yellow apothecia and white or gray thalli); the keys include all species seen by the author, with American species bolded; hyperlinks to range maps and photographs]

Harris, R.C. 1997-1999. Lime loving lichens. Eastern Lichen Network {Online}. Available: http://www.nybg.org/bsci/lichens/eln/lime_loving_lichens.htm {accessed 2002 October 18} [a key to ca. 180 lichen taxa growing on carcareous rock in eastern temperate N. Am.]

Lumbsch, H.T. and Brodo, I.M. 2000. Preliminary key to Lecanora species likely to occur in New England {Online}. Farlow Herbarium, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Available: http://www.huh.harvard.edu/collections/lichens/Lecanora_New_England.html {accesed 2002 October 18} [key to 64 species]

Brodo, I.M. and Ahti, T. 1995. Key to Cladina and Cladonia on the Queen Charlotte Islands and neighboring areas {Online}. Farlow Herbarium, Harvard University, Cambridge. Available: http://www.huh.harvard.edu/collections/lichens/queencharlotte.html [key to ca. 80 species]

Hinds, J.W. 1998. Lichen flora of eastern North America: the genus Parmelia sensu stricto. {Online}. Eastern Lichen Network. Available http://www.nybg.org/bsci/lichens/eln/articles.html {Accessed 2002 October 18}[key to 7 eastern N. Am. species, descriptions]

Buck, W.R. 1998. Lichen flora of eastern North America: the genus Gomphillus (Gomphillaceae). {Online}. Eastern Lichen Network. Available: http://www.nybg.org/bsci/lichens/eln/articles.html {Accessed 2002 October 18} [key, 2 eastern N. Am. species; descriptions, fine illustrations of morphology]

May, P.F. 1998. Lichen flora of eastern North America: the genus Ophioparma Norman. {online}. Eastern lichen Network. Available: http://www.nybg.org/bsci/lichens/eln/articles.html {Accessed 2002 October 17} [key, 2 eastern N. Am. species, descriptions, illustrations]

Schumm, F. 2000. Hilfsschlüssel zu sorediösen, unterseits unberindeten Heterodermia-Arten (inkl. einiger soredienfreier, sonst habituell ähnlicher Arten, Flechten, Physciaceae) {updated version, online in .pdf format}. Available: http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/schumm {accessed 2002 October 18}] [detailed world key to the 30 sorediate species with an ecorticate lower surface; 14 of 28 on N. Am. list

Schumm, F. 2001. Hilfsschlüssel zum Bestimmen der Arten der Gattung Heterodermia mit Podocarpa-Wuchsform {Online in .pdf format}. Available: http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/schumm {accessed 2002 October 18} [detailed world key to the 32 small shrubby species; 8 of 28 on N. Am. list]

Anonymous (ed.) 1997. Key to the genus Parmelia of Great Britain and Ireland {Online}. British Lichen Society. Available: http://www.theBLS.org.uk/cd/key.htm {accessed 2002 October 18}. [key to 47 species of Parmelia in the broad sense, N. Am. species, in several genera, not counted]

Sipman, H. 1997. Revised key to Megalosporaceae (genera Austroblastenia, Megaloblastenia, Megalospora) including some easily confused taxa, provisional version {Online}. Botanischer Garten und Botanisches Museum Berlin-Dahlem, Freie Universität Berlin. Available: http://www.bgbm.fu-berlin.de/bgbm/staff/wiss/Sipman+H/keys/Megalokey.htm {accessed 2002 October 18}. [key, about 33 species, 2 of 3 species of Megalospora on N. Am. list]

Elix, J. 1997. Revised worldwide key for the genus Relicina (Parmeliaceae) {Online). Botanischer Garten und Botanisches Museum Berlin-Dahlem, Freie Universität Berlin. Available: http://www.bgbm.fu-berlin.de/bgbm/staff/wiss/Sipman+H/keys/Relicina.htm {accessed 2002 October 18}. [key, about 50 species, 2 of 2 on N. Am. list]

Rambold, G. (ed.) 1996-. LIAS: A Global Information System for Lichenized and Non-Lichenized Ascomycetes. Botanische Staatssammlung München. Available: http://www.mycology.net//lias/index.cfm {accessed 2002 October 18} [world or regional multiple-entry interactive keys to lichen genera and also to species of the following N. Am. genera (organized by family): Adelolecia, Arthonia (in the broad sense, subset: taxa with red pigments);Biatora {subset Europe] Bunodophoron, Carbonea, Cladonia (in the broad sense, subset Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia), Clauzadeana, Diploschistes, Lecanora (key to 193 taxa of Lecanora in the narrow sense.), Lecideaceae (Europe), Megalospora, Miriquidica, Phacopsis, Phaeophyscia, Rimularia, and Tephromela; the interactive keys are still being developed and therefore have a few problems]

Sipman, H. 1999. Identification key and literature guide to the genera of lichenized fungi (Lichens) in the Neotropics, provisional version {Online}. Botanic Garden and Botanical Museum Berlin-Dahlem, Free University of Berlin. Available: http://www.bgbm.fu-berlin.de/bgbm/staff/wiss/Sipman+H/keys/neokeyA.htm {accessed 2002 October 18} [key to the genera, with hyperlinks to distribution data, references, and--when available--photographs and keys to species; glossary; useful in the subtropical part of the United States and perhaps elsewhere]

Sipman, H. 1996. Key to the lichen genera of the Guianas. {Online} 453 couplets. Available: http://www.mnh.si.edu/biodiversity/bdg/lichkey3.html {accessed 2001 September 14} [useful in the subtropical part of the United States and perhaps elsewhere]

Table of Contents

Ryan, Bruce. (1994-1999) Working keys for the identification of North American lichens {diskette}. Available: from the author at brucryan@mail.dancris.com [ (the best, but some problems; see annotation under "Twenty most useful")]

Hale, M.E., Jr. 1979. How to know the lichens, 2nd ed. Wm. C. Brown Co., Dubuque, Iowa, 246 pp. [Semi-complete coverage of N. Am. macrolichens as known in the late 1970s. The keys go directly to species level; you don't need to know the genus first. The most common species are keyed, with other species mentioned in the fine print. The keys are not technical, but take some practice to use reliably. Partial species descriptions including chemistry. Names of many taxa are out of date, but the book is still very useful. In print..]

Fink, B. 1935. The lichen flora of the United States. University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, 426 pp. [old, but sometimes still useful; many non-European species on the N. Am. checklist--especially western crusts--can best be keyed out using this work; the keys, however, are often somewhat vague; try Ryan (1994-1999) first]

Table of Contents

Thomson, J.W. 1984. America Arctic Lichens 1. The Macrolichens. Columbia University Press, New York, 504 pp. [keys; descriptions of species and genera; beautiful detailed drawings of most species; also useful alpine areas]

Thomson, J.W. 1997. American Arctic Lichens 2. The Microlichens. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, 675 pp. [keys, descriptions of species and genera, some species illustrated; also useful in alpine areas]

Thomson, J.W. 1979. Lichens of the Alaskan Arctic Slope. University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 314 pp. [keys, descriptions of species and genera; supplanted by Thomson 1979 and 1997, but still useable]

Lynge, B. and P.F. Scholander. 1932. Lichens from North East Greenland. I. Skrifter om Svalbard og Ishavet 41: 1-116. [macrolichens; detailed species descriptions but no keys]

Lynge, B. 1937. Lichens from West Greenland, collected chiefly by Th.M. Fries. Meddelelser om Grønland 118(8): 1-225. [keys in Latin for several genera, detailed species accounts in English, no generic key]

Lynge, B. 1940. Lichens of North East Greenland. II. Microlichens. Skrifter om Svalbard og Ishavet 81: 1-143. [keys in Latin for some genera, detailed species accounts in English, no generic key

Hale, M.E., Jr. 1954. Lichens from Baffin Island. American Midland Naturalist 51: 232-264. [keys for species in some genera]

Hansen, E.S. and Andersen, J. 1995. Greenland Lichens. Rhodos, Copenhagen. 124 pp. [no key, short descriptions and good color photos of 300 macro- and microlichens]

Table of Contents

Thomson, J.W. 1984. America Arctic Lichens 1. The Macrolichens. Columbia University Press, New York, 504 pp. [keys; descriptions of species and genera; beautiful detailed drawings of most species; also useful alpine areas]

Thomson, J.W. 1997. American Arctic Lichens 2. The Microlichens. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, 675 pp. [keys, descriptions of species and genera, some species illustrated; also useful in alpine areas]

Thomson, J.W., Scotter, G.W. and Ahti, T. 1969. Lichens of the Great Slave Lake Region, Northwest Territories, Canada. Bryologist 72: 137-177. [keys only to some groups]

Dahl, E. and Krog, H. 1973. Macrolichens of Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden. Scandinavian University Books, Universitetsforlaget, Oslo. 185 pp. [straightforward keys, good overlap with N. Am., no descriptions, many helpful drawings]

Magnusson, A.H. 1952. Lichens from Torne Lappmark. Arkiv för Botanik, Series II, 2: 45-249. [detailed keys to many traditionally defined genera, Arctic regions, 15 to 60 overlap with N. Am. species, but often with traditional generic names]

Ahti, T. and Hepburn, R.L. 1967. Preliminary studies on woodland caribou range, especially on lichen stands, in Ontario. Ontario Department of Lands and Forests Research Report (Wildlife) 74: 1-134. [contains a key to the macrolichens of northern Ontario]

Krog, H., Østhagen, H. and Tønsberg, T. 1980. Lavflora. Norsk Busk- og Bladlav. Supplement in English. Universitetsforlaget, Oslo, 53 pp. [keys to the macrolichens of Norway (translated into English in the Supplement); species and genera descriptions in Norwegian, photographs of each species]

Bird, C. 1970. Keys to the Lichens of West-Central Canada. Processed publication. Calgary, Alberta. 171 pp. [keys only]

Krog, H. 1968. The macrolichens of Alaska. Norsk Polarinstitut Skrifter 144: 1-180. [notes plus a few photographs, but no keys; 6 new species]

Table of Contents

Brodo, I.M. 1988. Lichens of the Ottawa region, second edition. Ottawa Field-Naturalists' Club Spec. Publication 3: 1-115, Ottawa. [keys; covers both macrolichens and crusts; available from the author at ibrodo@mus-nature.ca ]

Harris, R.C . 1977. Lichens of the Straits Counties, Michigan. (unpublished), 150 pp. [useful in temperate eastern North America; covers all growth forms, especially good for beginners trying to key out crusts because it uses traditional, spore- based genera; drawings of spores; the names are out of date; available from Elisabeth Lay at Lay239@aol.com or may be copied from anyone who own a copy.]

Gowan, S.P. and Brodo, I.M. 1988. The lichens of Fundy National Park, New Brunswick, Canada. Bryologist 91: i + 255-325. [detailed keys; available from the American Bryological and Lichenological Society at http://www.unomaha.edu/~abls/]

Brodo, I.M. 1968. The lichens of Long Island, New York: a vegetational and floristic analysis. New York State Museum and Science Service Bulletin 410: 1-330. [keys, notes, the arrangement of the general is confusing; copies are still available from Biological Survey, New York State Museum, Room 3140 CEC, Albany, NY 12230]

Taylor, C.J. 1967-1968. The lichens of Ohio. Part I. Foliose lichens. Part II. Fruticose and cladoniform lichens. Ohio State University, Columbus. 227 + 22 pp. [keys, detailed descriptions, large photographs, detailed information on microcrystal tests]

Hinds, P.L. and Hinds, J.W. 1998. Simplified field key to Maine macrolichens, published by the authors, 47 pp. [keys only; available from the authors at 254 Forest Avenue, Orono, ME 04473 jwhplh@earthlink.net]

Harris, R.C. 1997-1999. Lime loving lichens. Eastern Lichen Network. Available: http://www.nybg.org/bsci/lichens/eln/lime_loving_lichens.htm {accessed 1999 November 20} [a key to ca. 180 lichen taxa growing on carcareous rock in eastern temperate N. Am.]

Wong, P.Y. and Brodo, I.M. 1992. The Lichens of Southern Ontario, Canada. Syllogeus, 69, Canadian Museum of Nature, Ottawa. 79 pp. [annotated species list; includes keys to Bacidia in the broad sense, Caliciales in the broad sense., Caloplaca, Lecidea in the broad sense, Leptogium, Porpidia, and Rhizocarpon; available from the publisher at http://nature.ca/prodserv/cat/product_e.cfm?ID=258&Browse=Scientific%20Publication&searchText=]

Flenniken, D. 1999. The macrolichens in West Virginia. Published by the author. v + 231 pp. [keys, 284 species, species descriptions and comparisons, characterizations of genera, 320 color photographs; aimed at beginners, so relatively non-technical; available from the author at FlennikenD@aol.com ]

Medlin, J.J. 1996. Michigan lichens. Cranbrook Institute of Science, Bulletin 60: 1-98. [87 color photographs of common lichens; descriptions of species; the color for most, but not all, photographs is true]

Lamb, I.M. 1954. Lichens of Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia. Annual Report of the National Museum of Canada, Bulletin 132: 239-313. [list of 199 species; notes, several species described, discussions of taxonomy; no key]

Degelius, G. 1940. Contributions to the lichen flora of North America. I. Lichens from Maine. Arkiv för Botanik 30A (1): 1-62. [list of 229 species, about one-third with descriptive notes; no key]

Table of Contents

Harris, R.C. 1995. More Florida Lichens. Including the 10 Cent Tour of the Pyrenolichens. Published by the author, New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, New York. 192 pp. [keys to many genera and their species, sometimes including species outside Florida for completeness; arranged by order and family; lacks keys to higher taxa, so the user must either know the family or genus; extensive treatment of pyrenolichens; for some pyrenolichen genera there are eastern N. Am. or even provisional world keys, extensive taxonomic notes; available from Elisabeth Lay at Lay239@aol.com or may be copied from anyone who own a copy.]

Harris, R.C. 1990. Some Florida Lichens. Published by the author, New York Botanical Garden, New York. 109 pp. [similar to Harris (1995), but with fewer genera treated and more descriptive and taxonomic notes; only a few Pyrenolichen genera are treated; available from Elisabeth Lay at Lay239@aol.com or may be copied from anyone who own a copy.]

Ladd, D. M. 1997. Preliminary Draft: Lichens of the lower Ozark region of Missouri and Arkansas. Unpublished. [keys, brief descriptions of genera, notes; available from The Nature Conservancy at cost; contact Douglas Ladd: dladd@TNC.org ]

Dey, J.P. 1978. Fruticose and foliose lichens of the high-mountain areas of the southern Appalachians. Bryologist 81: 1-93. [lichens of the southern spruce-fir forest; some keys expanded to cover lower altitudes]

Flenniken, D. 1999. The macrolichens in West Virginia. Published by the author. v + 231 pp. [keys, 284 species, species descriptions and comparisons, characterizations of genera, 320 color photographs; aimed at beginners, so relatively non-technical; available from the author at FlennikenD@aol.com ]

Moore, B.J. 1968. The macrolichen flora of Florida. Bryologist 71: 161-266. [lacks index, hard to locate the genera]

Degelius, G. 1941. Contributions to the lichen flora of North America. 2. The lichen flora of the Great Smoky Mountains. Arkiv för Botanik 30A (3): 1-80. [list of 206 species, about one-third with descriptive notes; no keys]

Table of Contents

Wetmore, C.M. 1998 (most recent revision). Keys to the lichens of Minnesota. University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota. 83 pp. Available from the author at Clifford.M.Wetmore-1@tc.umn.edu [keys to about 550 species; relatively easy to use because the keys are organized using traditional, spore-based generic concepts, with a more modern name provided at the species level; the author does not accept all recent generic names; a couple of genera have also not yet been treated, notably Melanelia and Trapeliopsis]

Wetmore, C.M. 1967. Lichens of the Black Hills of South Dakota and Wyoming. Publications of the Museum, Michigan State University, Biological Series 3: 209-464. [keys and notes only, traditional generic concepts]

Harris, R.C . 1977. Lichens of the Straits Counties, Michigan. (unpublished), 150 pp. [useful in temperate eastern North America; covers all growth forms, especially good for beginners trying to key out crusts because it uses traditional, spore- based genera; drawings of spores; the names are out of date; available from Elisabeth Lay at Lay239@aol.com or may be copied from anyone who own a copy]

Ladd, D. M. 1997. Preliminary Draft: Lichens of the lower Ozark region of Missouri and Arkansas. Unpublished. [keys, brief descriptions of genera, notes; available from The Nature Conservancy at cost; contact Douglas Ladd: dladd@TNC.org ]

Wilhelm, G.S. 1998. The lichen flora of Chicago and vicinity: one hundred years of lichenology. Erigenia 16: 3-36. [good keys to genera and 222 species]

Medlin, J.J. 1996. Michigan lichens. Cranbrook Institute of Science, Bulletin 60: 1-98. [87 color photographs of common lichens; descriptions of species; the color for most, but not all, photographs is true]

Taylor, C.J. 1967. The Lichens of Ohio. Part I. Foliose Lichens. Biological Notes No. 3, The Ohio Biological Survey, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. lv + 147 pp. [keys, detailed species descriptions, large photographs, detailed information on microcrystal tests]

Taylor, C.J. 1968. Lichens of Ohio. Part 2. Fruticose and Cladoniform Lichens. Biological Notes No. 4, The Ohio Biological Survey, Ohio State University, Columbus. 153-227 + A1-A22 pp. [keys, detailed species descriptions, large photographs, detailed information on microcrystal tests]

Table of Contents

McCune, B. and Goward, T. 1995. Macrolichens of the Northern Rocky Mountains. Mad River Press, Eureka, California. 208 pp. [detailed keys that include many drawings, ca. 500 species; descriptions of genera; heavy use of abbreviations]

St. Clair, L.L. 1999. A color guidebook to the common Rocky Mountain Lichens. Bean Life Science Museum of Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, 242 pp. [keys to nearly 200 common species--including some crustose lichens--most of which are described and illustrated with color photographs; covers all of the Rockies, the Great Basin, the Colorado Plateau, and the basin and range province of New Mexico and Arizona.]

Wetmore, C.M. 1967. Lichens of the Black Hills of South Dakota and Wyoming. Publications of the Museum, Michigan State University, Biological Series 3: 209-464. [keys and notes only, traditional generic concepts; includes crustose lichens]

Kershaw, L., MacKinnon, A. and Pojar, J. 1998. Plants of the Rocky Mountains. Lone Pine Publishing, Edmonton. 527 pp. [small color photos of 40 species; ca. 80 more species mentioned in text; brief characterizations and comparisons, habitat notes; 33 line drawings, no key]

Newberry, C. 1991. Lichens of the Uinta Mountains and adjacent intermountain North America. Master of Science thesis, Brigham Young University, Provo. 237 pp. [relatively non-technical keys to genus and species, genus and species descriptions; covers both macro- and microlichens; recommended by, and available at cost from, Dr. Larry St. Clair, 193 MLBM, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah 84602 Larry_StClair@byu.edu ]

Imshaug, H.A. 1957. Alpine lichens of western United States and adjacent Canada. I. The macrolichens. Bryologist 60: 177-272. [macrolichens only; keys, notes]

Table of Contents

Nash, T.H., III, Ryan, B.D., Gries, C., and Bungartz, F. (eds.) 2002. Lichen Flora of the Greater Sonoran Desert Region, Vol. 1. Lichens Unlimited, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona. 532 pp. [keys to all genera in the region; keys to the species of 132 genera, incuding squamulose lichens, the Lichinales, most macrolichens, and most pyrenolichens; in N. Am. covers Arizona and southern California, but undoubtedly useful in adjacent regions; descriptions; notes on substrates, habitat, and distribution; many range maps; illustrated glossary; key to photobionts; available from the American Bryological and Lichenological Society at http://www.unomaha.edu/~abls/PublicationsforSale.htm]

Wetmore, C.M. 1976. Macrolichens of Big Bend National Park, Texas. Bryologist 79: 296-313. [keys to genera and species]

Ryan, B. (Continuously updated). Keys to Lichens of the Sonoran Desert Region. Unpublished set of working keys, in computer file format. [not reviewed; according to the author, these are in reasonably good shape, but lack species descriptions; available on diskette for a modest fee from the author brucryan@mail.dancris.com ]

Anderson, K.T. 1998. Lichen Flora of Chiricahua National Monument in Southeast Arizona. Ph.D. dissertation, Brigham Young University, 123 pp. Available from UMI Dissertation Service at http://www.umi.com/hp/Support/DExplorer/, Dissertation number 9822824. [keys to genera and species, descriptions, both macrolichens and microlichens covered]

Weber, W.A. 1963. Lichens of the Chiricahua Mountains, Arizona. University of Colorado Studies, Series in Biology, No. 10. 27 pp. [keys to the species of several genera]

St. Clair, L.L. 1999. A color guidebook to the common Rocky Mountain Lichens. Bean Life Science Museum of Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, 242 pp. [keys to nearly 200 common species--including some crustose lichens--most of which are described and illustrated with color photographs; covers all of the Rockies, the Great Basin, the Colorado Plateau, and the Basin and Range province of New Mexico and Arizona.]

Newberry, C. 1991. Lichens of the Uinta Mountains and adjacent intermountain North America. Master of Science thesis, Brigham Young University, Provo. 237 pp. [relatively non-technical keys to genus and species, genus and species descriptions; extensive coverage of both macro- and microlichens; highly recommended by, and available at cost from, Dr. Larry St. Clair, 193 MLBM, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah 84602 Larry_StClair@byu.edu ]

Hale, M.E., Jr. and Cole, M. 1988. Lichens of California. University of California Press, Berkeley, Los Angeles, London. 254 pp. [keys to common species, including some crusts; descriptions; partly illustrated with photographs of variable quality; in print]

Wright, D.M. 2000. Guide to the macrolichens of California: Part 1, the orange pigmented species. Bulletin of the California Lichen Society 7(1): 7-16. [keys to genera and species; descriptions of genera and species; notes; a few drawings]

Wright, D.M. 2000. Guide to the macrolichens of California: part 2, the gray foliose species. Bulletin of the California Lichen Society 7(2): 44-63. [keys to genera and species; descriptions of genera and species; notes]

Herre, A.W.C.T. 1910. The lichen flora of the Santa Cruz Peninsula, California. Proceedings of the Washington Academy of Sciences 12: 27-269. [keys, descriptions of genera and species]

Hasse, H.E. 1913. The lichen flora of southern California. Contributions from the United States National Herbarium 17: 1-132. [keys, descriptions of genera and species]

Smith, D.W. 1994. The corticolous lichen flora of Cedar Breaks National Monument and surrounding areas on the Markagunt Plateau, Iron County, Utah. Master of Science thesis, Brigham Young University, Provo. 113 pp. [relatively non-technical keys to genus and species, genus and species descriptions; covers both macro- and microlichens; available at cost from Dr. Larry St. Clair, 193 MLBM, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah 84602 Larry_StClair@byu.edu ]

Rajvanshi, V. 1994. Terricolous lichen flora of the San Rafael Swell, Emery County, Utah. Master of Science thesis, Brigham Young University, Provo. 46 pp. [relatively non-technical keys to genus and species, genus and species descriptions; covers both macro- and microlichens; available at cost from Dr. Larry St. Clair, 193 MLBM, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah 84602 Larry_StClair@byu.edu ]

Table of Contents

Goward, T., McCune, B. and Meidinger, D. 1994. The lichens of British Columbia, Illustrated keys. Part 1 - Foliose and squamulose species. B.C. Ministry of Forests, Special Report Series no. 8, i-iii, 1-181. Free downloadable version available: http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/docs/Srs/Srs08.htm bound version available: http://www.publications.gov.bc.ca [keys illustrated by small drawings, brief characterizations of genera; notes and chemistry for species; useful throughout northern North America]

Goward, T. 1999. The lichens of British Columbia, Illustrated keys. Part 2 - Fruticose species. B.C. Ministry of Forests Research Program (Special Report Series no. 9). 319 pp. Free downloadable version available: http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/docs/Srs/Srs08.htm bound version available: http://www.crownpub.bc.ca. [keys illustrated by drawings; covers both fruticose macro- and microlichens, including, for example, calicioid species, Gyalidiopsis, Baeomyces, and Pseudephebe; notes include chemistry, diagnostic features, habitat, variability, and range; useful throughout northern North America]

McCune, B. and Geiser, L. 1997. Macrolichens of the Pacific Northwest. Oregon State University Press, Corvallis, 386 pp. [keys to 458 species , descriptions of genera and ca. 200 species, excellent color photographs of ca. 200 species]

McCune, B. and Goward, T. 1995. Macrolichens of the Northern Rocky Mountains. Mad River Press, Eureka, California. 208 pp. [detailed keys that include many drawings, ca. 500 species; descriptions of genera]

Noble, W. 1982. The lichens of the coastal Douglas-fir dry subzone of British Columbia. Ph.D. thesis, University of British Columbia, Vancouver. Part II reprinted and updated in 1997, 238 pp. [practically the only key covering crusts in the area west of the Dakotas; beautifully reprinted and much more compact then the original, but the update unfortunately lacks a key to genera; keys to species for each genus; non-technical descriptions of genera and species, spore drawings for a few genera, notes; the keys and descriptions predate the generic re-arrangements of recent years, and they de-emphasize mycological characters such as ascus type and conidial type; available from Bruce McCune at Bruce.McCune@science.oregonstate.edu]

Vitt, D.H., Marsh, J.E. and Bovey, R.B. 1988. Mosses, Lichens and Ferns of Northwest North America. Lone Pine Publishing, Edmonton. 296 pp. [keys to about 160 common lichen species; descriptions, small but good color photographs of each]

Hale, M.E., Jr. and Cole, M. 1988. Lichens of California. University of California Press, Berkeley, Los Angeles, London. 254 pp. [keys to common species, including some crusts; descriptions; partly illustrated with photographs of variable quality; in print]

Wright, D.M. 2000. Guide to the macrolichens of California: Part 1, the orange pigmented species. Bulletin of the California Lichen Society 7(1): 7-16. [keys to genera and species; descriptions of genera and species; notes; a few drawings]

Wright, D.M. 2000. Guide to the macrolichens of California: part 2, the gray foliose species. Bulletin of the California Lichen Society 7(2): 44-63. [keys to genera and species; descriptions of genera and species; notes]

Howard, G.E. 1950. Lichens from the state of Washington. University of Washington Press, Seattle, 191 pp. [keys, descriptions of genera and species; largely out of date]

Imshaug, H.A. 1957. Alpine lichens of western United States and adjacent Canada. I. The macrolichens. Bryologist 60: 177-272. [macrolichens only; keys, notes]

Krog, H. 1968. The macrolichens of Alaska. Norsk Polarinstitut Skrifter 144: 1-180. [list of 326 species; notes; many characterizations, some descriptions, some taxonomic discussions, some photographs of thalli; no key]

Table of Contents

Harris, R.C. 1995. More Florida Lichens. Including the 10 Cent Tour of the Pyrenolichens. Published by the author, New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, New York. 192 pp. [keys, starting at the family level; the user must know either the family or the genus; all groups traditionally handled by lichenologists are treated, some for Florida only, some for eastern North America, some for the world; extensive taxonomic notes; available from Elisabeth Lay at Lay239@aol.com or may be copied from anyone who own a copy]

Harris, R.C. 1973. The corticolous pyrenolichens of the Great Lakes Region. Michigan Botanist 12: 3-68. [artificial key to species; old names, but still very useful, descriptions, spore drawings]

Harris, R.C. 1989. A sketch of the family Pyrenulaceae (Melanommatales) in Eastern North America. Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden 49: 74-107. [keys to Anthracothecium, Lithothelium, Plagiocarpa, Pyrgillus, Eopyrenula, and Pyrenula; descriptions, spore drawings]

Aptroot, A. 1991. A Monograph of the Pyrenulaceae (Excluding Anthracothecium and Pyrenula) and the Requienellaceae, with Notes on the Pleomassariaceae, the Trypetheliaceae and Mycomicrothelia (Lichenized and Non-lichenized Ascomycetes). Bibliotheca Lichenologica 44. J. Cramer, Berlin, Stuttgart. 178 pp. [world keys to families, genera, and species, descriptions, drawings of spores and photographs of thalli; the taxonomy of these groups is controversial]

McCarthy, P.M. and Mitchell, M.E. 1988. Lichens of the Burren Hills and the Aran Islands. Officina Typographica, Galway, 123 pp. [many species in various keys, terminal choices of key equivalent to a description, drawings of anatomy and spores]

Table of Contents

Tønsberg, T. 1992. The sorediate and isidiate, corticolous, crustose lichens in Norway. Sommerfeltia 14: 1-331. [Sterile crustose lichens; crustose lichens]

Fryday, A. and Coppins, B. 1997. Keys to sterile, crustose saxicolous and terricolous lichens occurring in the British Isles. Lichenologist 29: 301-332. [key to 200 taxa, excluding most Lepraria and Leproloma]

James, P.W. and Coppins, B. J. 1979. Key to British sterile crustose lichens with Trentepohlia as phycobiont. Lichenologist 11: 253-262. [detailed key amounting to descriptions, 24 species]

Laundon, J.R. 1962. The taxonomy of sterile crustaceous lichens in the British Isles. 1. Terricolous species. Lichenologist 2: 57-67. [key, 19 species]

Laundon, J.R. 1963. The taxonomy of sterile crustaceous lichens in the British Isles. 2. Corticolous and lignicolous species. Lichenologist 2: 101-151. [key ,many taxa, notes and a few descriptions]

James, P.W. 1970. The lichen flora of shaded acid rock crevices and overhangs in Britain. Lichenologist 4: 309-322. [detailed key to about 50 species, many of which are sterile]

Schreiner, E. and Hafellner, J. 1992. Sorediöse, corticole Krustenflechten im Ostalpenraum. I. Die Flechenstoffe und die gesicherte Verbreitung der besser bekannten Arten. Bibliotheca Lichenologica 45. J. Cramer, Berlin, Stuttgart. 291 pp. [key to 60 species, descriptions]

Ryan, Bruce. (1994-1999) Working keys for the identification of North American lichens {diskettes} Available: from the author at brucryan@mail.dancris.com [keys by substrate and propagule type; the sterile keys are in rough shape; (see annotation under "Twenty most useful")}

Brodo, I.M. 1988. Lichens of the Ottawa region, second edition. Ottawa Field-Naturalists' Club Spec. Publication 3: 1-115, Ottawa. [about 40 sterile crustose and squamulose species are treated; available from the author at ibrodo@mus-nature.ca ]

Gowan, S.P. and Brodo, I.M. 1988. The lichens of Fundy National Park, New Brunswick, Canada. Bryologist 91: i + 255-325. [about 45 sterile species; available from the American Bryological and Lichenological Society at http://www.unomaha.edu/~abls/ ]

McCune, B. 1985. Sterile, yellowish lichen crusts on soil in North America. Evansia 2: 23-26. [key to 12 species]

McCune, B. 1998. Lichens of granitic peaks in the Bitterroot Range, Montana and Idaho, USA. in Glenn, M.G, Harris, R.C., Dirig, R. and Cole, M.S. (eds.). Lichenographia Thomsoniana: North American Lichenology in Honor of John W. Thomson. Mycotaxon Ltd., Ithaca, New York, 281-294. [key to sterile white crusts on alpine soils; available from the American Bryological and Lichenological Society at http://www.unomaha.edu/~abls/]

Harris, R.C . 1977. Lichens of the Straits Counties, Michigan. Ann Arbor (litho.), 150 pp. [key to sterile crusts; available from Elisabeth Lay at Lay239@aol.com or may be copied from anyone who own a copy]

Almborn, 0. 1952. A key to the sterile corticolous crustaceous lichens occurring in South Sweden. Botaniska Notiser 1952: 239-263. [key, about 70 species, notes]

Brodo, I.M. 1968. The lichens of Long Island, New York: a vegetational and floristic analysis. New York State Museum and Science Service Bulletin 410: 1-330. [copies are still available from Biological Survey, New York State Museum, Room 3140 CEC, Albany, NY 12230]

Henssen, A. 1963. Eine Revision der Flechtenfamilien Lichinaceae und Ephebaceae. Symbolae Botanicae Upsalienses 18(l): 1-123. [key to genera of sterile Lichenaceae and allies]

Table of Contents

[See References by genus for treatments of individual lichenicolous genera and for treatments organized by host genus]

Clauzade, G., Diederich, P. and Roux, C. 1989. Nelikenigintaj Fungoj likenlogaj. Illustrita determinlibro. Bulletin de la Société Linnéenne de Provence, Numéro Spécial 1: 1-141.[keys to genera and to species; the most up-to-date and wide-ranging flora of lichenicolous fungi; in Esperanto]

Hawksworth, D.L. 1983. A key to the lichen-forming, parasitic, parasymbiotic and saprophytic fungi occurring on lichens in the British Isles. Lichenologist 15: 1-44. [one overall key, spore drawings for many species]

Alstrup, V. and Hawksworth, D.L. 1990. The lichenicolous fungi of Greenland. Meddelelser om Grønland, Bioscience 31: 1-90. [one overall key to 124 species, illustrations of new and rare species, generally no descriptions, but references thereto; about 50 overlap with species reported from N. Am. so far.]

Hawksworth, D.L. 1979. The lichenicolous Hyphomycetes. Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) 6: 183-300. [keys, detailed descriptions, and fine drawings for each species; a fundamental work]

Hawksworth, D.L. 1981. The lichenicolous Coelomycetes. Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) 9: 1-98. [keys, detailed descriptions, and illustrations for each species; a fundamental work]

Triebel, D. 1989. Lecideicole Ascomyceten. Eine Revision der obligat lichenicolen Ascomyceten auf lecideoiden Flechten. Bibliotheca Lichenologica 35. J. Cramer, Berlin-Stuttgart. 278 pp. [keys, detailed descriptions of genera and species; some drawings of spores and asci]

Clauzade, G. and Roux, C. 1976. Les champignons lichenicoles non lichenises. Universite des Sciences et Techniques du Languedoc, Montpellier. 110 pp.

Keissler, K. von. 1930. Die Flechtenparasiten. In Rabenhorst's Kryptogamen-Flora von Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz 8: 1-712. [keys to genera that start with the family, keys to species, lacks keys to families; most useful for descriptions and illustrations of individual species]

David, J.C. and Hawksworth, D.L. 1995. Zevadia: a new lichenicolous hyphomycete from western Ireland. In: Farkas, E.E., Lücking, R. and Wirth, V. (eds.). Scripta Lichenologica--Lichenological Papers Dedicated to Antonín Vezda. Bibliotheca Lichenologica 58. J. Cramer, Berlin and Stuttgart pp. 63-71. [updated key to the lichenicolous genera of dematiaceous fungi with aggregated conidiophores]

Diederich, P. 1996. The Lichenicolous Heterobasidiomycetes. Bibliotheca Lichenologica 61. J. Cramer, Berlin, Stuttgart. 198 pp. [keys, descriptions of genera and species, drawings]

Matzer, M. 1996. Lichenicolous Ascomycetes with Fissitunicate Asci on Foliicolous Lichens. Mycological Papers, 171, CAB International, Wallingford. x + 202 pp. [keys by genus and species and by host; 49 species (many new) in 15 genera, none yet reported for N. Am., but likely to be in the future, descriptions, illustrations]

Dennis, R.W.G. 1978. British Ascomycetes. J. Cramer, Vaduz, 585 pp. [useful for its fine, mostly color, illustrations; treats some lichen parasites and non-lichenized genera found in the N. Am. Checklist, usually under old generic names; the index of specific epithets is excellent; keys to orders, families, genera, and species; brief descriptions of genera and species]

Table of Contents

Lücking, R. 1992. Foliicolous Lichens - A Contribution to the Knowledge of the Lichen Flora of Costa Rica, Central America. Beihefte zur Nova Hedwigia, 104, J. Cramer, Berlin, Stuttgart. 179 pp. [best modern key to foliicolous genera, key to species, illustrations, 220 taxa]

Santesson, R. 1952. Foliicolous lichens I. A revision of the taxonomy of the obligately foliicolous, lichenized fungi. Symbolae Botanicae Upsalienses 12: 1-590. [the basic reference; a classic lichenological work]

Farkas, E. and Sipman, H.J.M. 1997. Checklist of foliicolous lichenized fungi. After Farkas and Sipman (1993), with additions to 1996. Abstracta Botanica 21: 173-206. [this combination of world checklist and bibliography gives identification references for every genus and species; these include keys, descriptions, and illustrations, when available]

Lücking, R. 1997. Additions and Corrections to the Knowledge of the Foliicolous Lichen Flora of Costa Rica. The Family Gomphillaceae. Bibliotheca Lichenologica 65. J. Cramer, Berlin, Stuttgart. 109 pp. [83 species in overall key, good throughout neotropics, but limited use on N. Am. list, notes, photographs]

Awasthi, D.D. 1991. A Key to the Microlichens of India, Nepal and Sri Lanka. Bibliotheca Lichenologica 40. J. Cramer, Berlin, Stuttgart. 340 pp. [key to 30 obligately foliicolous lichen genera]

Vezda, A. 1987. Flechtensystematische Studien XII. Die Familie Gomphillaceae und ihre Gliederung. Folia Geobotanica et Phytotaxonomica 22: 179-198. [key to the genera with hyphophores]

Table of Contents

Harris, R.C. 1997-1999. Lime loving lichens. Eastern Lichen Network. Available: http://www.nybg.org/bsci/lichens/eln/lime_loving_lichens.htm {accessed 1999 November 20} [a key to ca. 180 lichen taxa growing on carcareous rock in eastern temperate N. Am]

Fletcher, A. 1975. Key for the identification of British marine and maritime lichens. II. Calcareous and terricolous species. Lichenologist 7: 73-115. [part of key to 428 species, key termina equivalent to brief descriptions]

Fröberg, L. 1989. The Calcicolous Lichens on the Great Alvar of Öland, Sweden. Institutionen för Systematisk Botanik, Lund. 109 pp. [descriptions of 109 species in about 55 genera (N. Am. species not counted); notes with ecology and comparisons to similar species; lichen communities; several illustrations, especially for Verrucaria]

Renobales, G. 1996. Contribución al conocimiento de los líquenes calcícolas del occidente de Vizcaya y parte oriental de Cantabria (N-España). GuineanA, 2, Servicio Editorial de la Universidad del País Vasco, Bilbao. 310 pp. [annotated list of 222 species, descriptions for lesser known species (some illustrated), keys to Caloplaca, Polyblastia, Staurothele, Thelidium, and Verrucaria]

McCarthy, P.M. and Mitchell, M.E. 1988. Lichens of the Burren Hills and the Aran Islands. Officina Typographica, Galway, 123 pp. [detailed key to calcicolous lichens, about 135 species; terminal choices of key equivalent to a description]

Table of Contents

Taylor, R.M. 1982. Marine flora and fauna of the northeastern United States. Lichens (Ascomycetes) of the intertidal region. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Technical Report NMFS Circular 446: 1-24. [artificial key illustrated with line drawings, descriptions for 22 species; useful on eastern rocky shores]

Fletcher, A. 1975. Key for the identification of British marine and maritime lichens. I. Siliceous rocky shore species. II. Calcareous and terricolous species. Lichenologist 7: 1-52, 73-115 [key to 428 species, key termina equivalent to brief descriptions; useful on eastern rocky shores]

Taylor, R.M. 1974. Studies on the littoral lichens of northeastern North America. Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, East Lansing, 203 pp. [not seen; available from UMI Dissertation Services at http://www.umi.com/hp/Support/DExplorer/ dissertation number 7507264]

Brodo, I.M. and Santesson, R. 1997. Lichens of the Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia, Canada. 3. Marine species of Verrucaria (Verrucariaceae, Ascomycotina). Journal of the Hattori Botanical Laboratory 82: 27-37. [key to 10 named and 3 unnamed N. Am. species]

Arup, U. 1995. Littoral species of Caloplaca in North America: a summary and key. Bryologist 98: 129-140. [key, 20 species, brief descriptions, color photographs of habitus]

Table of Contents

Tibell, L. 1999. Calicioid lichens and fungi. in Ahti, T., Jørgensen, P.M., Kristinsson, H., Moberg, R., Søchting, U. and Thor, G. (eds.). Nordic Lichen Flora. Volume 1. Introductory Parts. Calicioid Lichens and Fungi. Nordic Lichen Society, Uddevalla. 94 pp. [keys to 15 genera and 80 species, 70 on N. Am. list, covers all calicioid groups, good overlap (70 of 117 species) with N. Am.; good color photographs of all species]

Tibell, L. 1984. A reappraisal of the taxonomy of Caliciales. In: Hertel, H. and Oberwinkler, F. (eds.). Beiträge zur Lichenologie. Festschrift J. Poelt. Beiheft zur Nova Hedwigia 79: 597-713. [modern world key to genera, generic descriptions, taxonomic overview of the Caliciales, s.l.]

Selva, S.B. and Tibell, L. 1999. Lichenized and non-lichenized calicioid fungi from North America. Bryologist 102: 377-397. [keys to the North American species of Chaenotheca, Chaenothecopsis, Phaeocalicium, Sclerophora, and Stenocybe; descriptions of 15 species, and notes for 4 others, mostly new or newly reported; photographs of newly described species; 7 species newly described or reported in the same issue of Bryologist are not included in the keys]

Tibell, L. 1975. The Caliciales of boreal North America. Symbolae Botanicae Upsalienses 21(2): 1-128. [keys, descriptions, photographs of anatomy for some genera, covers perhaps half of the species now known from N. Am., moderately old generic concepts]

Selva, S.B. 1988. The Caliciales of Northern Maine. Bryologist 91: 2-17 [key to 35 species, descriptions]

Middelborg, J. and Mattsson, J. 1987. Crustaceous lichenized species of the Caliciales in Norway. Sommerfeltia 5: 1-70. [keys, 39 species in Calicium, Chaenotheca (including Cybebe), Cyphelium, Microcalicium, Sclerophora, Thelomma, good overlap]

Tibell, L. 1996. Caliciales. Flora Neotropica, 69, New York Botanical Garden, New York. 78 pp. [modern key to genera, including several not on N. Am. list, keys to 51 neotropical species, most of them also found on N. Am. list; descriptions]

Tibell, L. 1987. Australasian Caliciales. Symbolae Botanicae Upsaliensis 27(1): 1-279. [modern key to genera, keys to 78 species, about 40 occurring on N. Am. list; detailed descriptions and fine illustrations make this a good source for confirming an identification]

Schmidt, A. 1970. Anatomisch-taxonomische Untersuchungen an europaischen Arten der Flechtenfamilie Caliciaceae. Mitteilungen aus dem Staatsinstitut für allgemeine Botanik in Hamburg 13: 111-166. [treatment of European Mycocaliciaceae, including Mycocalicium, Phaeocalicium, Chaenothecopsis, and Stenocybe; good for photographs of anatomy, and for generic concepts; some species descriptions, no keys]

Table of Contents

Purvis, W. 2000. Lichens. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, and The Natural History Museum, London. 112 pp. [a well-written, simple introduction to lichens; lots of top-quality color photographs; the best book for readers lacking a science background]

Hale, M.E., Jr. 1983. The Biology of the Lichens. Third Edition. Edward Arnold, Baltimore. 190 pp. [short, unified and clear--a classic; citations are handled as endnotes, making the text easy to read; still in print]

Hawksworth, D.L. and Hill, D.J. 1984. The Lichen-Forming Fungi. Blackie, Glasgow and London. 158 pp. [a short British textbook suitable for the literate beginner; rather succinct, but covers the ground; illustrations are small; in print]

Richardson, D.H.S. 1974. The Vanishing Lichens. Hafner Press, New York. 231 pp. [a non-technical, easy-to-read book on the history, economic uses, and ecological importance of lichens; not really a textbook]

Schöller, H. (ed.). 1997. Flechten. Geschichte, Biologie, Systematik, Ökologie, Naturschutz und kulturelle Bedeutung. Waldemar Kramer, Frankfurt am Main. 247 pp. [takes a world-wide perspective; unified style despite multiple authors; good color illustrations; in German]

Lawrey, J.D. 1984. Biology of Lichenized Fungi. Praeger Publishers, New York. 408 pp. [not intended as an introductory text; basically a synthesis of lichen research with citations; emphasizes physiology, chemistry, ecology, and lichens as bio-indicators; de-emphasizes morphology, ontogeny, and systematics; few illustrations, many graphs; in print]

Nash, T.H., III (ed.). 1996. Lichen biology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England. 303 pp. [an up-to-date multiple-author text with an academic tone; citations; some photographs; in print]

Galun, M. (ed.). 1988. CRC Handbook of Lichenology. {in three volumes} CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton. 297 pp., 181 pp., 147 pp. [a multiple-author encyclopedic review of the state of lichenology]

Ahmadjian, V. and Hale, M.E., Jr. (eds.). 1973. The lichens. Academic Press, New York. 697 pp. [a multiple-author text with a slightly academic tone; text citations]

Henssen, A. and Jahns, H.M. 1974. Lichenes. Eine Einführung in die Flechtenkunde. Georg Thieme Verlag, Stuttgart. 467 pp. [great drawings of anatomy and excellent discussion of morphologic development; one-third of book devoted to discussion and illustration of taxonomic groups; in German]

Ozenda, P. 1963. Lichens. Gebrüder Borntraeger, Berlin-Nikolassee. 199 pp. [textbook emphasizing anatomy and morphology; many wonderful drawings; in French]

Ozenda, P. and Clauzade, G. 1970. Les Lichens. Etude Biologie et Flore Illustree. Masson and Cie, Editeurs, Paris. 801 pp. [combines a 125 page text emphasizing morphology and anatomy, with extensive keys to European lichens; the text is illustrated with many line drawings; the keys are illustrated mostly with photographs; the keys have a peculiar arrangement and have been supplanted by Clauzade and Roux (1985)]

Smith, A.L. 1921. Lichens. Cambridge University Pre